The Expansion of the Frankish Empire under Charlemagne

Carlo Magno, also known as Charlemagne, significantly expanded the Frankish Empire through a series of military campaigns from 768 to 814 AD. His conquests reshaped the political landscape of Europe and laid the foundation for the Impero carolingio.

Key conquests included:

• Defeating the Lombards in 774, bringing northern Italy under Frankish control
• Subjugating the Saxons and Frisians in the north, expanding into modern-day Netherlands and Germany
• Conquering Bavaria and Carinthia from the Avars in the east
• Limited success in the Iberian Peninsula, establishing a foothold up to the Ebro River

Highlight: The Battle of Roncevaux Pass in 778, immortalized in the "Chanson de Roland," marked a setback in Charlemagne's Iberian campaign.

Charlemagne's empire was divided into administrative units:

• Counties (contee) governed by counts
• Marches (marche) along borders, governed by margraves
• Duchies (ducati) governed by dukes

Vocabulary: Marches were larger border territories requiring stronger military presence.

On December 25, 800 AD, Pope Leo III crowned Charlemagne as Emperor of the Romans, reviving the concept of a unified Western European empire.

Definition: The Sacro Romano Impero, or Holy Roman Empire, was established with this coronation, though it differed from the ancient Roman Empire.

Charlemagne implemented several reforms:

• Established Aachen (Aquisgrana) as his capital
• Created the imperial chancellery
• Issued capitularies to provide uniform legislation
• Reformed the monetary system, standardizing coinage

Example: The Carolingian minuscule, a new standardized handwriting, was developed during this period to improve literacy and administration.

The Decline of the Carolingian Empire

La crisi dell'impero carolingio began shortly after Charlemagne's death in 814 AD. Several factors contributed to its decline:

1. Division of the empire:
   • Louis the Pious succeeded Charlemagne but struggled to maintain unity
   • The Treaty of Verdun in 843 divided the empire among Charlemagne's grandsons

Example: The division resulted in three kingdoms: West Francia (modern France), East Francia (Germany), and Middle Francia (including Italy and the Low Countries).

2. Weakening of central authority:

   • Local lords gained more power
   • The practice of hereditary fiefs, recognized by Charles the Bald in 877, further decentralized power

3. External threats:

   • Vikings from the north
   • Saracens from the south
   • Magyars (Hungarians) from the east

Highlight: These invasions led to the construction of fortifications and the rise of local protective lordships, further weakening imperial authority.

4. Breakdown of the vassalage system:
   • Vassals began making multiple oaths to different lords
   • This led to conflicts of loyalty and a fragmentation of power

The brief reunification under Charles the Fat in 884 failed to restore the empire's former strength. By 887, the Carolingian Empire had effectively dissolved into separate kingdoms.

Quote: "The empire was founded on the vassalage oath, but it was based only on the personal bond between the emperor and his vassals." This personal nature of rule ultimately contributed to the empire's fragmentation.