The Celts: Early Inhabitants of Britain

The Celts were among the earliest known inhabitants of Britain, arriving from northwestern Germany around 700 BC during the late Iron Age. Their presence and culture significantly shaped the early history of the British Isles.

Key characteristics of the Celts:

• Organized into tribes of warriors sharing similar language, culture, and religion
• Skilled hunters, fishermen, and metal workers
• Lived in small villages or farming communities
• Constructed hill forts for protection and community living

Example: Celtic hill forts were groups of houses built on hilltops, surrounded by banks and ditches for defense.

Celtic society and innovations:

• Introduction of the iron plough, advancing agricultural practices
• Use of iron for weaponry, affecting trade and local independence
• Women enjoyed nearly equal rights to men, including the freedom to choose their own husbands
• The clan was the basic social unit

Highlight: Celtic women had considerable autonomy for their time, reflecting a relatively egalitarian society.

Celtic religion and spirituality:

• Worshipped natural elements such as the sun, moon, and water
• Ceremonies held in woods or near water sources
• Druids served as priests, judges, and educators

Definition: Druids were Celtic priests who performed religious rites, administered justice, and were responsible for educating the young.

The Celtic period in Britain laid the foundation for much of the island's cultural and social development, influencing subsequent civilizations and leaving a lasting imprint on British history.

Inferno: The Structure and Themes of Dante's Hell

La Divina Commedia struttura pdf reveals the intricate design of Dante's Inferno. The first part of the Divina Commedia is structured as a deep, funnel-shaped abyss created by the fall of Lucifer, the angel who rebelled against God. This infernal cavity formed when the Earth itself recoiled from Lucifer, who ended up at the point furthest from God, at the center of the Earth and the universe.

Highlight: Opposite to the abyss of Hell is the mountain of Purgatory, creating a symmetrical structure in Dante's cosmology.

The Inferno is composed of nine circles, each smaller than the last as they descend towards the center. Before entering the first circle, souls encounter the Antinferno, where the Ignavi (the indifferent) reside, excluded from judgment as they are without fault or merit.

Structure: Inferno's nine circles:

1. Limbo: Unbaptized children and virtuous pagans 2-5. The Incontinent: Sinners of excess (lust, gluttony, greed, wrath)
2. Heretics
3. The Violent (three rings)
4. The Fraudulent (ten bolgie or ditches)
5. The Traitors (four zones)

Definition: La legge del contrappasso (Law of Retribution) is the principle by which sinners in Hell suffer punishments that contrast with or mirror their earthly sins.

Quando è stata scritta la Divina Commedia: Dante began writing the Inferno in 1307 and completed it in 1308. The entire journey through Hell, Purgatory, and Paradise is set during Holy Week of 1300, the year of the Jubilee declared by Pope Boniface VIII.

Vocabulary: Terzina dantesca (Dantean tercet) - A verse form consisting of three lines of eleven syllables each, with an interlocking rhyme scheme (ABA BCB CDC, etc.).

A chi si ispira Dante per scrivere la Divina Commedia: Dante chose the Roman poet Virgil as his guide through Hell and Purgatory, considering him an illustrious master and a representation of human reason.

The Roman Conquest and Influence in Britain

The Roman period in Britain, spanning from 43 AD to 409 AD, marked a significant era of cultural, technological, and urban development on the island. This period began with invasion attempts and culminated in a centuries-long occupation that profoundly shaped British society.

Key events and developments:

• 55-54 BC: Julius Caesar's initial invasions of Britain
• 43-47 AD: Emperor Claudius initiates the full-scale conquest of Britain

Highlight: The Romans established a network of towns, often growing around their military bases, which became centers of commercial activity.

Roman urban development:

• Construction of 9,600 km of paved roads across Britain
• Establishment of public baths and other civic amenities
• Foundation of Londinium (modern-day London) as a major settlement

Example: The Romans built the first London Bridge over the River Thames, which became the central point for a new network of roads.

Lasting Roman influences:

• Hadrian's Wall: A massive defensive fortification stretching from east to west coast
• Latin influence on place names: Many towns founded by Romans have names ending in -caster, -cester, or -chester, derived from the Latin word "castrum" meaning a fortified military camp

Vocabulary: Castrum - A Latin term for a fortified military camp, which evolved into suffixes in many British town names.

The Roman occupation ended in 409 AD when Emperor Honorius withdrew his soldiers to defend Rome against barbarian raiders. This departure left the Romanized Celts vulnerable to invasions by Anglo-Saxon peoples from Germany and Scandinavia in the 5th century, marking the end of Roman Britain and the beginning of a new era.