The Celts: Early Inhabitants of Britain

The Celts were among the earliest known inhabitants of Britain, arriving from northwestern Germany around 700 BC during the late Iron Age. Their presence and culture significantly shaped the early history of the British Isles.

Key characteristics of the Celts:

• Organized into tribes of warriors sharing similar language, culture, and religion
• Skilled hunters, fishermen, and metal workers
• Lived in small villages or farming communities
• Constructed hill forts for protection and community living

Example: Celtic hill forts were groups of houses built on hilltops, surrounded by banks and ditches for defense.

Celtic society and innovations:

• Introduction of the iron plough, advancing agricultural practices
• Use of iron for weaponry, affecting trade and local independence
• Women enjoyed nearly equal rights to men, including the freedom to choose their own husbands
• The clan was the basic social unit

Highlight: Celtic women had considerable autonomy for their time, reflecting a relatively egalitarian society.

Celtic religion and spirituality:

• Worshipped natural elements such as the sun, moon, and water
• Ceremonies held in woods or near water sources
• Druids served as priests, judges, and educators

Definition: Druids were Celtic priests who performed religious rites, administered justice, and were responsible for educating the young.

The Celtic period in Britain laid the foundation for much of the island's cultural and social development, influencing subsequent civilizations and leaving a lasting imprint on British history.

The Roman Conquest and Influence in Britain

The Roman period in Britain, spanning from 43 AD to 409 AD, marked a significant era of cultural, technological, and urban development on the island. This period began with invasion attempts and culminated in a centuries-long occupation that profoundly shaped British society.

Key events and developments:

• 55-54 BC: Julius Caesar's initial invasions of Britain
• 43-47 AD: Emperor Claudius initiates the full-scale conquest of Britain

Highlight: The Romans established a network of towns, often growing around their military bases, which became centers of commercial activity.

Roman urban development:

• Construction of 9,600 km of paved roads across Britain
• Establishment of public baths and other civic amenities
• Foundation of Londinium $modern-day London$ as a major settlement

Example: The Romans built the first London Bridge over the River Thames, which became the central point for a new network of roads.

Lasting Roman influences:

• Hadrian's Wall: A massive defensive fortification stretching from east to west coast
• Latin influence on place names: Many towns founded by Romans have names ending in -caster, -cester, or -chester, derived from the Latin word "castrum" meaning a fortified military camp

Vocabulary: Castrum - A Latin term for a fortified military camp, which evolved into suffixes in many British town names.

The Roman occupation ended in 409 AD when Emperor Honorius withdrew his soldiers to defend Rome against barbarian raiders. This departure left the Romanized Celts vulnerable to invasions by Anglo-Saxon peoples from Germany and Scandinavia in the 5th century, marking the end of Roman Britain and the beginning of a new era.

The Anglo-Saxon Era: Shaping Early English Society

The Anglo-Saxon period, spanning from 410 to 1066 AD, was a formative era in English history. This period saw the arrival and settlement of Germanic tribes - the Angles, Saxons, and Jutes - who would profoundly influence the language, culture, and social structure of Britain.

Key characteristics of Anglo-Saxon society:

• Primarily farmers and fishermen
• Lived in wooden houses near streams or rivers
• Built great halls in village centers, decorated with carvings and paintings

Highlight: Anglo-Saxons had a strong sense of aesthetics, evident in their elaborately decorated great halls.

Language and writing:

• Initially mostly illiterate, using only the runic alphabet
• Runes were used for carving inscriptions on stone or metal, not for long records
• Various tribal dialects evolved into Old English, the foundation of modern English

Vocabulary: Runic Alphabet - A set of mysterious characters used by Anglo-Saxons for short inscriptions, not suitable for lengthy texts.

Social structure and values:

• Organized into family groups or clans
• Loyalty to clan members was the most important social bond

Religion:

• Initially polytheistic, worshipping several gods
• Christianity, introduced by the Romans, initially disappeared but was later reintroduced

Example: The names of weekdays in English reflect Anglo-Saxon pagan gods: Wednesday $Woden's day$, Thursday $Thor's day$, etc.

The Anglo-Saxon era laid the groundwork for many aspects of English culture, language, and social structure. Their influence can still be seen in modern English vocabulary, place names, and certain cultural traditions. This period ended with the Norman Conquest in 1066, marking a new chapter in English history.

The Anglo-Saxon Legacy: Language, Culture, and Society

The Anglo-Saxon period, lasting from 410 to 1066 AD, was crucial in shaping the foundations of English language and culture. This era saw the transformation of Britain from a post-Roman society to one with distinct Germanic influences.

Linguistic developments:

• The evolution of Old English from various Germanic dialects
• Introduction of the runic alphabet, primarily used for short inscriptions
• Gradual transition from oral to written traditions

Definition: Old English - The earliest historical form of the English language, spoken in England and southern Scotland during the early Middle Ages.

Social and cultural aspects:

• Clan-based society with strong emphasis on loyalty and kinship
• Skilled craftsmanship in woodworking and metalworking
• Rich oral tradition of poetry and storytelling

Example: The epic poem "Beowulf" is a prime example of Anglo-Saxon literature, blending heroic traditions with emerging Christian themes.

Religious transformation:

• Initial adherence to Germanic paganism
• Gradual conversion to Christianity, blending new beliefs with old traditions
• Establishment of monasteries as centers of learning and literacy

Highlight: The Synod of Whitby in 664 AD marked a significant shift towards Roman Christianity, influencing both religious practices and cultural development.

Political structure:

• Formation of several kingdoms, including Northumbria, Mercia, and Wessex
• Development of early forms of kingship and governance

The Anglo-Saxon period laid the groundwork for many aspects of English identity, from language to legal concepts. Their influence continued well beyond the Norman Conquest of 1066, shaping the core of what would become English culture and society.

Page 5: British Historical Development

This page describes the development of British kingdoms, which is not pertinent to the discussion of Dante's work.

Inferno: The Structure and Themes of Dante's Hell

La Divina Commedia struttura pdf reveals the intricate design of Dante's Inferno. The first part of the Divina Commedia is structured as a deep, funnel-shaped abyss created by the fall of Lucifer, the angel who rebelled against God. This infernal cavity formed when the Earth itself recoiled from Lucifer, who ended up at the point furthest from God, at the center of the Earth and the universe.

Highlight: Opposite to the abyss of Hell is the mountain of Purgatory, creating a symmetrical structure in Dante's cosmology.

The Inferno is composed of nine circles, each smaller than the last as they descend towards the center. Before entering the first circle, souls encounter the Antinferno, where the Ignavi $the indifferent$ reside, excluded from judgment as they are without fault or merit.

Structure: Inferno's nine circles:

1. Limbo: Unbaptized children and virtuous pagans 2-5. The Incontinent: Sinners of excess $lust, gluttony, greed, wrath$
2. Heretics
3. The Violent $three rings$
4. The Fraudulent $ten bolgie or ditches$
5. The Traitors $four zones$

Definition: La legge del contrappasso $Law of Retribution$ is the principle by which sinners in Hell suffer punishments that contrast with or mirror their earthly sins.

Quando è stata scritta la Divina Commedia: Dante began writing the Inferno in 1307 and completed it in 1308. The entire journey through Hell, Purgatory, and Paradise is set during Holy Week of 1300, the year of the Jubilee declared by Pope Boniface VIII.

Vocabulary: Terzina dantesca $Dantean tercet$ - A verse form consisting of three lines of eleven syllables each, with an interlocking rhyme scheme $ABA BCB CDC, etc.$.

A chi si ispira Dante per scrivere la Divina Commedia: Dante chose the Roman poet Virgil as his guide through Hell and Purgatory, considering him an illustrious master and a representation of human reason.