From James II to the Joint Monarchs

James II ascended to the throne in 1685, immediately placing Catholics in positions of authority. This move caused significant concern among the Protestant majority in England.

James II's succession was complicated by his family situation:

• He was a widower with two Protestant daughters:
  1. Mary, married to the ruler of Holland
  2. Anne, married to the ruler of Denmark
• He then married the Catholic Mary of Modena, and in 1688 they had a Catholic son

The birth of a Catholic heir alarmed both the Whigs and Tories in Parliament, as it threatened to establish a Catholic dynasty. To prevent this, they negotiated with William of Orange, Mary's husband and ruler of Holland.

In 1688, William of Orange marched across southern England, while James II fled to France. This event led to what is known as the Glorious Revolution.

Highlight: In January 1689, William and Mary became joint monarchs as William III and Mary II, at the request of Parliament. This was significant because they were chosen by Parliament, not by divine right, marking a shift in the balance of power between monarchy and Parliament.

Key developments during their reign included:

• The Toleration Act of 1689, which introduced more religious tolerance (though Catholics were still excluded)
• The Bill of Rights, which established that the monarch could only levy taxes, raise an army, or suspend laws with parliamentary consent
• The Triennial Act, which required Parliament to meet at least once every three years

In 1694, Regina Anna La favorita Mary died of smallpox, leaving William III as sole monarch. The Act of Settlement in 1701 formally excluded Catholics from the throne, setting the stage for the Protestant succession.

Quote: "The Act of Settlement was a turning point in English constitutional history, firmly establishing the principle of parliamentary sovereignty."

When William III died in 1702, Anne became queen. Her reign was marked by several significant events:

• The 1707 Act of Union, which created the United Kingdom of Great Britain by uniting England and Scotland under a single Parliament at Westminster
• The Treaty of Utrecht in 1713, ending the War of Spanish Succession and expanding British territorial possessions in North America

Vocabulary: The Treaty of Utrecht was a series of peace treaties that helped end the War of Spanish Succession. It marked the emergence of Great Britain as a significant European power.

Anna di Gran Bretagna successore was determined by the Act of Settlement, which led to George I, great-grandson of James I, succeeding her upon her death in 1714. This marked the beginning of the Hanoverian dynasty in Britain.

The Restoration of the Monarchy

The restoration of the English monarchy in 1660 marked a significant turning point in British history. Carlo II d'Inghilterra, son of Charles I, returned from exile in France to reclaim the throne. His time in France had made him an admirer of Louis XIV, influencing his approach to governance and court life.

Upon his return, Charles II established a court that embraced pleasure and the arts. Theatres and taverns reopened, signaling a shift from the austere Puritan era of the Commonwealth. This change reflected a renewed interest in the material world and enjoyment of life.

Highlight: In 1662, Charles II patronized the Royal Society, an institution dedicated to scientific inquiry based on the principle of "on the word of no one." This marked a direct challenge to traditional philosophical dependence on authority.

The Royal Society included notable members such as:

• Robert Boyle, a physicist and chemist
• John Evelyn, a diarist
• Sir Christopher Wren, a renowned architect

In domestic policy, landowners resumed their leadership of society, and a new Parliament, known as the Cavalier Parliament, was elected in 1664.

Definition: The Cavalier Parliament was the name given to the English Parliament called by Charles II in 1661. It was overwhelmingly Royalist and Anglican.

Two major disasters struck London during Charles II's reign:

1. The Great Plague of 1665, a devastating bubonic plague outbreak
2. The Great Fire of London in 1666, which raged for five days

Example: Following the Great Fire, Charles II commissioned Sir Christopher Wren to rebuild the old City. Wren presented a plan for a new city with wide streets, grand squares, and buildings in the neoclassical style, including the iconic St. Paul's Cathedral.

Charles II's reign was also marked by financial challenges. He often turned to France for financial support when his relationship with Parliament became difficult. This led to the secret Treaty of Dover in 1670, which included an agreement to restore Catholicism in Britain in exchange for French support.

Vocabulary: The Treaty of Dover was a secret agreement between Charles II of England and Louis XIV of France, signed in 1670. It committed England to assist France in its war against the Dutch Republic.

Carlo II morte occurred in 1685, and he was succeeded by his brother James II, who had converted to Catholicism.