From James II to the Joint Monarchs

James II ascended to the throne in 1685, immediately placing Catholics in positions of authority. This move caused significant concern among the Protestant majority in England.

James II's succession was complicated by his family situation:

• He was a widower with two Protestant daughters:
  1. Mary, married to the ruler of Holland
  2. Anne, married to the ruler of Denmark
• He then married the Catholic Mary of Modena, and in 1688 they had a Catholic son

The birth of a Catholic heir alarmed both the Whigs and Tories in Parliament, as it threatened to establish a Catholic dynasty. To prevent this, they negotiated with William of Orange, Mary's husband and ruler of Holland.

In 1688, William of Orange marched across southern England, while James II fled to France. This event led to what is known as the Glorious Revolution.

Highlight: In January 1689, William and Mary became joint monarchs as William III and Mary II, at the request of Parliament. This was significant because they were chosen by Parliament, not by divine right, marking a shift in the balance of power between monarchy and Parliament.

Key developments during their reign included:

• The Toleration Act of 1689, which introduced more religious tolerance (though Catholics were still excluded)
• The Bill of Rights, which established that the monarch could only levy taxes, raise an army, or suspend laws with parliamentary consent
• The Triennial Act, which required Parliament to meet at least once every three years

In 1694, Regina Anna La favorita Mary died of smallpox, leaving William III as sole monarch. The Act of Settlement in 1701 formally excluded Catholics from the throne, setting the stage for the Protestant succession.

Quote: "The Act of Settlement was a turning point in English constitutional history, firmly establishing the principle of parliamentary sovereignty."

When William III died in 1702, Anne became queen. Her reign was marked by several significant events:

• The 1707 Act of Union, which created the United Kingdom of Great Britain by uniting England and Scotland under a single Parliament at Westminster
• The Treaty of Utrecht in 1713, ending the War of Spanish Succession and expanding British territorial possessions in North America

Vocabulary: The Treaty of Utrecht was a series of peace treaties that helped end the War of Spanish Succession. It marked the emergence of Great Britain as a significant European power.

Anna di Gran Bretagna successore was determined by the Act of Settlement, which led to George I, great-grandson of James I, succeeding her upon her death in 1714. This marked the beginning of the Hanoverian dynasty in Britain.