The Celts arrived from Northwestern Germany during the Iron Age, around 700 B.C. They gradually settled in Britain between 500 and 100 BC, bringing their agricultural practices and introducing the iron plough. The Druids performed religious rites, worshipping natural elements such as the sun, the moon, and water. They also administered justice and educated the young, living in clans organized into tribes of warriors who shared a similar language, religion, and culture.
The Celts were hunters, fishermen, and metalworkers, living in small villages. They built hill forts, farming communities with huts made of wood and thatched roofs. Their religious ceremonies took place in the woods near the water, and Celtic women had more rights, including choosing their husbands and owning property.
In 55-54 BC, Julius Caesar invaded Britain, but the real conquest began in 43-47 AD under Emperor Claudius. The Romans built almost ten thousand kilometers of paved roads and promoted the growth of towns near their army bases. They also built the first "London Bridge" and constructed Hadrian's Wall as a defensive fortification and custom barrier.
After the Romans withdrew in 409 AD, the Romanized Celts were left to fight the Anglo-Saxon peoples – the Angles, Saxons, and Jutes – who arrived in the 5th and 6th centuries from Germany and Scandinavia. These invaders, known as the Anglo-Saxons, were organized into family groups, spoke Old English, and were mostly farmers, deep-sea fishermen, and hunters.
The Anglo-Saxons exalted physical courage and personal freedom, creating a language that dominated England until the Norman Conquest. They initially worshiped several gods before the arrival of Christianity, and their social structure was based on loyalty to the clan members or lord. After the Anglo-Saxon invasion, Britain was divided into several local kingdoms, each with its own king and regional influence.
In the 8th and 9th centuries, the Vikings arrived from Norway, Sweden, and Denmark, attacking the monastery of Lindisfarne and gradually settling in the country. However, King Alfred the Great of Wessex united the Anglo-Saxons against the Vikings and implemented various measures to defend the territories, reorganize the army, and encourage religious and historical writing.
In conclusion, the history of England provides a rich tapestry of cultures and influences, from the arrival of the Celts to the impact of the Roman conquest, the Anglo-Saxon invasion, and the subsequent Viking settlements. Each of these periods has played a significant role in shaping the England we know today, and their legacies continue to resonate in modern English culture, literature, and traditions.
