The Neuron and Nervous System

The neuron is the basic unit of the nervous system, responsible for transmitting information through electrical and chemical signals.

Three main types of neurons are:

1. Sensory neurons
2. Motor neurons
3. Interneurons

Definition: Motor neurons AP Psychology definition - Neurons that communicate information from the central nervous system to muscles.

The action potential is a key process in neural communication:

Vocabulary: Action potential - A brief electrical signal sent down the axon when stimulus reaches threshold $-55mV$.

Neurons communicate via neurotransmitters, chemical messengers that cross synapses between neurons.

Highlight: Understanding neuron structure and function is crucial for grasping how the nervous system AP psychology operates.

Research Methods in Psychology

Psychology employs both descriptive and experimental research methods to study behavior and mental processes.

Descriptive methods include:

• Surveys
• Naturalistic observation
• Case studies
• Correlational studies

Definition: Naturalistic observation AP psychology definition - A research method involving observing and recording behavior in natural settings without manipulation.

Experimental methods involve manipulating variables to infer cause and effect relationships.

Definition: Experiment AP psychology definition - A research method that manipulates one variable $independent$ to measure its effect on another $dependent$ variable.

Key figures in psychology's history include:

• Wilhelm Wundt $Father of Psychology$
• Edward Titchener $Structuralism$
• William James $Functionalism$
• Sigmund Freud $Psychoanalysis$
• Ivan Pavlov, John Watson, B.F. Skinner $Behaviorism$

Highlight: Understanding various research methods is essential for success in AP Psychology research methods.

States of Consciousness

Consciousness refers to our awareness of internal states and the external world. Key concepts include:

1. Circadian Rhythm: 24-hour biological clock controlling sleep-wake cycles
2. REM Sleep: Rapid eye movement stage associated with dreaming

Vocabulary: Paradoxical sleep - Term for REM sleep due to high brain activity but paralyzed body.

Sleep disorders fall into two categories:

1. Dyssomnias: Disruptions in amount, quality, or timing of sleep $e.g., insomnia$
2. Parasomnias: Undesired arousal or actions during sleep $e.g., sleepwalking$

Theories of dreaming include:

• Freud's wish fulfillment theory
• Activation-synthesis model
• Neurocognitive theory

Highlight: Understanding altered states of consciousness in psychology is crucial for AP Psychology students.

Psychoactive Drugs and Their Effects

Psychoactive drugs are chemical substances that alter arousal, mood, thinking, sensation, and perception. They affect the central nervous system by crossing the blood-brain barrier.

Key concepts include:

1. Withdrawal: Unpleasant physical reactions and cravings when drug use stops
2. Depressants: Drugs that reduce neural activity and slow body functions
3. Stimulants: Drugs that excite neural activity and speed up body functions
4. Psychedelics $Hallucinogens$: Drugs that create perceptual distortions and alter mood and thinking

Example: Examples of stimulants include caffeine, cocaine, ecstasy, and nicotine.

Highlight: Understanding the effects of psychoactive drugs is an important topic in AP Psychology.

Sensation and Perception

Sensation involves detecting physical energy from the environment and converting it into neural signals. Perception is the process of selecting, organizing, and interpreting sensations.

Key concepts include:

1. Sensory receptors: Specialized cells in sense organs that respond to specific stimuli
2. Bottom-up processing: Starting with sensory input and working up to higher-level processing
3. Top-down processing: Information processing guided by high-level mental processes

Vocabulary: Sensory threshold - The minimum strength a stimulus must have to activate a sensory receptor cell.

Interesting phenomena in perception include:

• Cocktail party effect: Ability to focus on one voice among many
• Change blindness: Failure to notice changes in the environment

Highlight: Understanding sensation and perception processes is crucial for success in AP Psychology.

Learning Theories

Learning is the process of acquiring new and relatively enduring information or behaviors through experience. Key learning theories include:

1. Classical Conditioning: Learning that occurs when we link two or more stimuli

Definition: Classical conditioning AP psychology definition - A type of learning where a neutral stimulus becomes associated with an unconditioned stimulus to produce a conditioned response.

2. Operant Conditioning: Learning involving voluntary behaviors shaped by their consequences

Vocabulary: Reinforcement - Consequences that increase the likelihood of a behavior recurring.

Vocabulary: Punishment - Consequences that decrease the likelihood of a behavior recurring.

Thorndike's law of effect is a foundational principle in operant conditioning, stating that behaviors followed by satisfying consequences are more likely to be repeated.

Highlight: Understanding learning theories is essential for success in AP Psychology, as they form the basis for explaining many psychological phenomena.

Page 7: Personality Theories

This section explores major theoretical perspectives on personality development.

Definition: Psychoanalytic theory emphasizes childhood experiences and the unconscious mind.

Vocabulary: Fixation occurs when development becomes stuck at a particular psychosexual stage.

Example: Freud's psychosexual stages include oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital phases.

Highlight: Defense mechanisms are ego-protective responses to unpleasant experiences.

Overall Summary

AP Psychology covers essential topics in neuroscience, research methods, consciousness, and learning. Key areas include:

• Structure and function of neurons in the nervous system
• Research methods including descriptive and experimental approaches
• States of consciousness including sleep and altered states
• Learning theories like classical and operant conditioning

Understanding these foundational concepts is critical for success in AP Psychology, which involves significant memorization and application of psychological principles.